Exploring improvisations in road safety in a low-income setting.

Road collision types repeat themselves, especially in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), where countermeasures are often improvised and implemented with little planning. At the Shahbag intersection in Dhaka, Bangladesh, speed bumps were quickly constructed at the exit of the intersection as an improvised road safety measure following the occurrence of a fatal collision, which eventually contributed to another collision between a truck and a car. The events influencing the improvisation decision, and that action's consequences, have been analysed using the Impromap methodology, a variation of the Accimap approach that focusses specifically on improvisation. The applicability of the Impromap as a systems-based approach to the road safety domain is assessed using the predictions described in Rasmussen's risk management framework, and corresponding countermeasures are proposed. The analysis shows that improvisation in the road safety domain is undesirable irrespective of the economic setting as it is likely to eventually contribute to secondary collisions.Practitioner summary: In this paper, the events influencing the improvisation decision following a road crash, and that action's consequences, have been analysed using the Impromap methodology. The applicability of Impromap as a systems-based approach in road safety domain is assessed using the Rasmussen's risk management framework-based predictions, and corresponding countermeasures are proposed.

To what extent do our walking and cycling behaviours relate to each other, and do we cycle as well as we think we do? Piloting the walking and cycling behaviour questionnaires in the UK.

Greater uptake of active transport has been argued as necessary for the transport system to achieve relevant sustainability and public health goals; however, the research tools used to investigate behaviour when using these modes are far less well-developed than those used to investigate driving behaviour. This study takes two self-report behavioural measures, the Walking Behaviour Questionnaire (WBQ) and the Cycling Behaviour Questionnaire (WBQ), and pilots them in the UK. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses with data from 428 respondents revealed factor structures different to those described in the limited number of previous studies that used the CBQ and WBQ. Across both questionnaires, scales measuring intentional behaviour differed from original descriptions to a greater extent than did the scale concerning unintentional attention or memory errors. In addition to a validation exercise, this research explored the relationships between variables, finding a correlation between the reported performance of unintentional errors when walking and cycling. Looking in more detail at cycling behaviours, we found that those who rated themselves as more proficient cyclists also reported performing fewer unintentional cycling errors. Results also showed self-reported helmet use to bear little to no relationship with other self-reported cycling behaviours or self-rated cycling proficiency. Finally, using structural equation modelling, we demonstrated that responses to the CBQ add very little (over and above age, gender, and exposure to the road environment) to the explanation of self-reported past collision involvement. In total, only 7% of the variation in past collision involvement was explained by the included variables. We urge caution when using self-report behavioural measures that have not been validated in the context of intended use, and the importance of using such measures in combination with other approaches rather than in isolation when trying to develop an understanding of overall system performance.

25 Years of road safety: The journey from thinking humans to systems-thinking.

Research into road safety has evolved from individual level component analysis to a much broader, systemic approach that acknowledges the fusion of 'socio' and 'technical' system elements. Over the past four decades, Professor Neville Stanton has contributed to over 179 journal articles, book chapters and conference papers in the field of road safety. The journey from 'thinking humans' to 'systems thinking' is demonstrated in this paper through the novel application of the Risk Management Framework (RMF) to the categorisation of research activities. A systematic review of Neville's contributions to the field of road safety demonstrates that over the years, his research activities have evolved from investigating single technological or human performance aspects in isolation (e.g., in-vehicle information design and workload) through to the holistic analysis of much broader systems (e.g., investigating road safety as a whole). Importantly, this evolution goes hand in hand with a change in the focus and emphasis of recommendations for improvements to safety. Going forward, Neville has helped pave the way for fundamental changes and improvements to be made to road safety systems around the world.

Taking a mixed-methods approach to collision investigation: AcciMap, STAMP-CAST and PCM.

Recently, ergonomics and safety researchers have turned their attention towards applying combinations of sociotechnical methods rather than using single methods in isolation. In the current research, a mixed-method approach combining two systems-based methods, Accimaps and the Systems Theoretic Accident Model and Process - Causal Analysis using Systems Theory (STAMP-CAST), and one cognitive approach, the Perceptual Cycle Model (PCM), were employed in analysing a rail-level crossing incident in Bangladesh. Each method was applied individually to investigate the collision, and interventions were proposed corresponding to incident events at different risk management framework levels. The three methods provided different perspectives of the whole picture, together identifying an array of contributory factors. The complementary nature of these methods aided in proposing a comprehensive set of safety recommendations, thereby demonstrating the benefit of a mixed-method approach for collision investigation in low-income settings.

Thinking aloud on the road: Thematic differences in the experiences of drivers, cyclists, and motorcyclists.

This study takes a qualitative approach to exploring the experiences (and differences therein) of individuals using either their car, bicycle, or motorcycle to navigate a ∼10.5 km urban route in a provincial UK city, with the aim of contributing to our understanding of the needs and requirements of different road users. Forty-six individuals provided concurrent verbal reports, using the 'think aloud' method, whilst using their vehicle to navigate the test route, the transcripts of which were subjected to a theory-agnostic, inductive, thematic analysis. A number of group differences were observed, revealing (among other factors) the importance of road surface quality to cyclists, the focus on vigilant observation in motorcyclists, and the heightened emotionality experienced by both two-wheeled groups, particularly those on bicycles. This affective component has, as yet, been under-explored in the academic domain and under-utilised in road transport policy and strategy; this is discussed, with attention drawn to the cyclists' greater tendency to make negatively valenced value judgements. Results are also discussed in terms of the potential to improve road users' experiences, foster inter-group empathy and understanding, and encourage a shift in mobility towards more sustainable modes.

An investigation of urban pedestrian behaviour in Bangladesh using the Perceptual Cycle Model.

In Bangladesh, pedestrians remain the most neglected road user group in terms of research and safety measures, even though they are involved in nearly 50% of all fatal collisions. In the Dhaka metropolitan area, this statistic rises to around 65%. To reduce the recurrence of such collisions, it is necessary to understand the underlying thought processes of pedestrians, and how pedestrians interact with different road users, particularly when crossing the road. This study contributes to knowledge through the analysis of verbal data from 46 pedestrians, framed in terms of the Perceptual Cycle Model, where cognitive processes are described in terms of three categories: schema (mental templates), action (doing things), and world (environmental information). Concurrent verbal reports were provided by participants while they negotiated a busy area of mixed traffic in the centre of Dhaka city. The analysis revealed some of the factors that affected decision-making (for road crossing behaviour) at the different road sections. Many external factors (e.g., street sellers, rubbish blocking the path, lack of shade and poor pavement condition) prevented the pavement from being used and contributed to riskier road crossing behaviour. Some safety implications and related recommendations are presented.

Exploring the Relationship between Attitudes, Risk Perceptions, Fatalistic Beliefs, and Pedestrian Behaviors in China.

Road safety has become a worldwide public health concern. Although many factors contribute to collisions, pedestrian behaviors can strongly influence road safety outcomes. This paper presents results of a survey investigating the effects of age, gender, attitudes towards road safety, fatalistic beliefs and risk perceptions on self-reported pedestrian behaviors in a Chinese example. The study was carried out on 543 participants (229 men and 314 women) from 20 provinces across China. Pedestrian behaviors were assessed by four factors: errors, violations, aggressions, and lapses. Younger people reported performing riskier pedestrian behaviors compared to older people. Gender was not an influential factor. Of the factors explored, attitudes towards road safety explained the most amount of variance in self-reported behaviors. Significant additional variance in risky pedestrian behaviors was explained by the addition of fatalistic beliefs. The differences among the effects, and the implications for road safety intervention design, are discussed. In particular, traffic managers can provide road safety education and related training activities to influence pedestrian behaviors positively.

Resolving the differences between system development and system operation using STAMP: a road safety case study in a low-income setting.

Road safety strategies adopted worldwide have made significant progress in reducing road trauma, but have stagnated more recently. The situation in low- and middle-income countries is even worse with no significant decrease in fatality rates. Safety researchers have argued that adopting sociotechnical systems approach is necessary to make significant advancements and improvements. The aim of this study was to develop a control structure model of the Bangladesh road safety system by identifying the actors and organisations involved across the system. Expert stakeholders were identified and interviewed, and relevant information was gathered in order to generate the Systems Theoretic Accident Model and Process control structure model. Throughout the analysis of this model, differences in the control and feedback mechanisms of the system were identified, and road safety intervention recommendations were made. Future research should also predict potential risks within the system and propose proactive and preventative countermeasures. Practitioner summary: In this article, a Systems Theoretic Accident Model and Process control structure model of the Bangladesh road safety system is developed, and the involved actors are identified. Based on interviews and workshops with expert stakeholders, differences in the controls and feedback mechanisms in the system were identified, and road safety intervention recommendations were made. Abbreviations: BUET: Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology.

Representing two road traffic collisions in one Accimap: highlighting the importance of emergency response and enforcement in a low-income country.

Seemingly erratic pedestrian crossing has become a major source of vehicle-pedestrian collisions on highways in Bangladesh, and across other low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). In this article, we approach the challenge from a sociotechnical systems perspective by using the Accimap method to analyse a pair of time-separated yet interconnected road traffic collisions. The first event involved a truck colliding with a road divider; in the second, fatal incident, a bus hit a university student. The traditional-style investigation conducted immediately after the collision apportioned blame to end users, that is, drivers and pedestrian; however, application of sociotechnical systems thinking revealed the contribution from lack of emergency response and enforcement among many other important factors. Results and recommendations are discussed in terms of reducing the chance and severity of such collisions across LMICs, and in terms of the need to look beyond the end-user, a focus that remains dominant in such settings. Practitioner summary: This paper applies sociotechnical systems thinking to pedestrian safety in Bangladesh by analysing two inter-connected road traffic collisions using a single Accimap. The findings emphasise the importance of implementing road safety interventions that target all system levels, and draw attention to the importance of post-collision response in low-income settings. Abbreviation: BUET: Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology.

How do fatalistic beliefs affect the attitudes and pedestrian behaviours of road users in different countries? A cross-cultural study.

This paper reports on an exploratory investigation of the influence of five different fatalistic belief constructs (divine control, luck, helplessness, internality, and general fatalism) on three classes of self-reported pedestrian behaviours (memory and attention errors, rule violations, and aggressive behaviours) and on respondents' general attitudes to road safety, and how relationships between constructs differ across countries. A survey of over 3400 respondents across Bangladesh, China, Kenya, Thailand, the UK, and Vietnam revealed a similar pattern for most of the relationships assessed, in most countries; those who reported higher fatalistic beliefs or more external attributions of causality also reported performing riskier pedestrian behaviours and holding more dangerous attitudes to road safety. The strengths of relationships between constructs did, however, differ by country, behaviour type, and aspect of fatalism. One particularly notable country difference was that in Bangladesh and, to a lesser extent, in Kenya, a stronger belief in divine influence over one's life was associated with safer attitudes and behaviours, whereas where significant relationships existed in the other countries the opposite was true. In some cases, the effect of fatalistic beliefs on self-reported behaviours was mediated through attitudes, in other cases the effect was direct. Results are discussed in terms of the need to consider the effect of locus of control and attributions of causality on attitudes and behaviours, and the need to understand the differences between countries therein.

Vulnerable road users in low-, middle-, and high-income countries: Validation of a Pedestrian Behaviour Questionnaire.

The primary aim of this study was to validate the short version of a Pedestrian Behaviour Questionnaire across six culturally and economically distinct countries; Bangladesh, China, Kenya, Thailand, the UK, and Vietnam. The questionnaire comprised 20 items that asked respondents to rate the extent to which they perform certain types of pedestrian behaviours, with each behaviour belonging to one of five categories identified in previous literature; violations, errors, lapses, aggressive behaviours, and positive behaviours. The sample consisted of 3423 respondents across the six countries. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to assess the fit of the data to the five-factor structure, and a four-factor structure in which violations and errors were combined into one factor (seen elsewhere in the literature). For some items, factor loadings were unacceptably low, internal reliability was low for two of the sub-scales, and model fit indices were generally unacceptable for both models. As such, only the violations, lapses, and aggressions sub-scales were retained (those with acceptable reliability and factor loadings), and the three-factor model tested. Although results suggest that the violations sub-scale may need additional attention, the three-factor solution showed the best fit to the data. The resulting 12-item scale is discussed with regards to country differences, and with respect to its utility as a research tool in cross-cultural studies of road user behaviour.

What do people know about eco-driving?

An online survey of 321 respondents revealed that the majority of people are aware of eco-driving and have a positive attitude towards it. Although the types of eco-driving tips offered by respondents, and their potential effect on fuel consumption, were in line with those found in the popular and academic literature, knowledge of specific fuel saving behaviours was generally low. Relationships were found between environmental attitudes and knowledge of, and propensity to perform eco-driving behaviours; however, these relationships were weak, indicating that neither pro-environmental attitudes nor knowledge of eco-driving behaviours is strongly indicative of actual eco-driving performance. Males were found to be more knowledgeable of the means for driving in a fuel-efficient manner than females; however, no effect was found for either age or level of general education. Results are discussed in terms of the challenges and opportunities for encouraging eco-driving, and the necessity for both governmental and industry involvement. Practitioner Summary: To successfully encourage the uptake of eco-driving (e.g. through policy, training and feedback) it is first necessary to understand how the general public perceives it, and what they already know of it. This survey study addresses this by looking at relationships between environmental attitudes and knowledge, and specific eco-driving measures.

Ecodriving in hybrid electric vehicles--Exploring challenges for user-energy interaction.

Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) can help to reduce transport emissions; however, user behaviour has a significant effect on the energy savings actually achieved in everyday usage. The present research aimed to advance understanding of HEV drivers' ecodriving strategies, and the challenges for optimal user-energy interaction. We conducted interviews with 39 HEV drivers who achieved above-average fuel efficiencies. Regression analyses showed that technical system knowledge and ecodriving motivation were both important predictors for ecodriving efficiency. Qualitative data analyses showed that drivers used a plethora of ecodriving strategies and had diverse conceptualisations of HEV energy efficiency regarding aspects such as the efficiency of actively utilizing electric energy or the efficiency of different acceleration strategies. Drivers also reported several false beliefs regarding HEV energy efficiency that could impair ecodriving efforts. Results indicate that ecodriving support systems should facilitate anticipatory driving and help users locate and maintain drivetrain states of maximum efficiency.

A decision ladder analysis of eco-driving: the first step towards fuel-efficient driving behaviour.

This paper provides a decision ladder analysis of eco-driving, and a discussion of the resultant models in terms of the skills, rules and knowledge taxonomy of human behaviour and how this can inform the design of an in-vehicle, eco-driving support system. In order to understand the types of behaviours that characterise fuel-efficient driving, a review was conducted of the academic literature and of more publicly available resources, such as governmental, car manufacturers' and specific eco-driving organisations' websites. The review identified four largely distinct driving activities that play a central role in the use of fuel in the private road vehicle. A focus group involving four researchers in the transport ergonomics field, followed by a series of five interviews with eco-driving experts, served to validate, supplement and further specify the models. Practitioner Summary: This paper presents a decision ladder analysis of eco-driving. A four-member focus group and five interviews with eco-driving experts were conducted; the resultant models are discussed in terms of supporting fuel-efficient driving behaviours in the novice eco-driver through their potential to inform the design of an in-vehicle eco-driving support system.

Following the cognitive work analysis train of thought: exploring the constraints of modal shift to rail transport.

Environmental concerns show that transport is responsible for almost a quarter of all greenhouse gas emissions, and it is also the fastest growing sector. Modal shift towards public transport could help slow down, or even reverse, this trend. There appear to be a number of constraints that are preventing this from happening. This paper explores the constraints to modal shift to rail transport from the perspective of cognitive work analysis, specifically the abstraction hierarchy, the contextual activity template and social organisational and cooperation analyses. Whilst these analyses may not present any new barriers, they do show how the constraints are interlinked in an explicit manner. These interrelations are important for two reasons. First, in consideration of constraint removal, one must anticipate the likely effects on the remainder of the system. Second, by linking functions and situations, new concepts of travel may be identified and explored. PRACTITIONER SUMMARY: The purpose of this study was to use a semi-structured approach to identifying constraints to modal shift from a variety of perspectives. It is argued that cognitive work analysis offers a new way of thinking about the modal shift problem and helps to generate new insights into potential solutions.

Getting past first base: Going all the way with Cognitive Work Analysis.

This paper reports the application of Cognitive Work Analysis (CWA) to the problem of communications planning in military aviation. Applications of CWA rarely get beyond the first one or two phases; this paper presents an analysis in which all five phases have been completed. The method offers a formative description of the system, defining the set of boundaries and constraints that shape system activity in terms of work domain, recurring activities, decision making, social organisation and worker competency requirements. It is an analysis that is well suited to environments in which the occurrence of unanticipated events can have serious implications for both safety and productivity. Communications planning in military aviation is such an environment. The outputs of the analysis provided an extensive and exhaustive description of the system, highlighting the uneven spread of activity, across actors involved in communications planning and across the situations in which planning can occur. In addition, a new method for informing worker competency requirements based on abstract functions rather than specific decision steps is proposed and discussed in terms of job design, interface design, and person specification.